Bennett’s Model

What is Culture? (Meaning & Concept)

The word “Culture” is derived from the Latin word “Cultura”, which means care of the body and, predominantly, the mind. In an organizational context, culture is a complex compilation of beliefs, customs, laws, knowledge, traditions, music, art, and behavioral norms that a human being acquires while being a member of a particular society.

It is often defined as “the collective programming of the mind” which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.

The 7 Key Characteristics of Culture

Culture is complex, but it follows a pattern. Here are its defining traits:

1. Acquired: Culture is not innate or inherited through genes. It is learned. We acquire it from family members, teachers, and social interactions. Example: Language, gestures, and slang are learned behaviors.

2. Collective: Culture is not an individual phenomenon; it is shared by a group. It exists in the interactions between people.

3. Value System: Culture shapes our core values—what we consider right or wrong, important or unimportant. Example: Some cultures value saving money for the future, while others value spending and enjoying the present.

4. Stability: Core cultural values are stable over long periods. While superficial trends change, the deep-rooted values of a society (like respect for elders) remain constant.

5. Differentiator: Culture operates as a boundary. It distinguishes one group of people from another.

6. Contextual: Cultural manifestations change based on the context. A behavior acceptable in a social setting might be unacceptable in a professional setting.

7. Common yet Different: While different cultures may share some common aspects (like the concept of family), the specific rules and expectations can be drastically different.

Sociological Theories of Culture

How do we interpret culture in society? There are three major theoretical perspectives:

1. Functionalist View

This view sees culture as the “glue” that holds society together.

• Concept: Culture functions to smoothen the operation of society. It creates bonding and synergy among members.

• Example: The education system in the USA emphasizes individual accomplishment. This aligns with the country’s economic goal of creating a productive, innovative workforce. The culture supports the function of the nation.

2. Conflict View

This view suggests that culture is constituted based on inequality.

• Concept: Culture often reinforces divisions based on gender, class, race, and age. The “dominant” culture creates a value system that benefits some people at the expense of others.

• Example: The “glass ceiling” in corporate environments, where cultural norms might subtly discourage women from reaching top leadership positions.

3. Symbolic View

This view focuses on face-to-face interactions and how individuals interpret symbols.

• Concept: Culture is created and maintained through the symbolic meaning people attach to objects, events, and behaviors.

• Example: A “good season” has a different symbolic meaning for a doctor (more patients = good business) compared to a pharmaceutical company (high sales) or the general public (good weather).

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Model

Geert Hofstede conducted research in over 50 countries and identified six dimensions that distinguish one culture from another. This is the most widely used framework in international business.

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

This measures the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

• High PDI (e.g., Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines):

  • Inequality is accepted.

  • Hierarchy is strict; instructions flow from top to bottom.

  • Subordinates wait for orders and do not take initiative.

  • Status and age are highly respected.

• Low PDI (e.g., Austria, Denmark):

  • Inequality is minimized.

  • Structures are flatter; decision-making is decentralized.

  • Subordinates expect to be consulted and take initiative.

2. Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Individualism (e.g., USA, UK, Australia):

  • Focus is on the “I”.

  • Success and failure are attributed to the individual.

  • Privacy and personal freedom are paramount.

• Collectivism (e.g., Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama):

  • Focus is on the “We”.

  • Loyalty to the group (family, clan, company) is the highest virtue.

  • The group takes care of the individual in exchange for loyalty.

3. Masculinity vs. Femininity

• Masculinity (e.g., Japan, Hungary):

  • Values achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success.

  • Gender roles are distinct and often traditional.

  • Competition is encouraged.

• Femininity (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Netherlands):

  • Values cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life.

  • Gender roles are fluid.

  • Consensus is preferred over competition.

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

This measures how comfortable a society is with ambiguity and the unknown.

• High UAI (e.g., Greece, Portugal, Belgium):

  • Rigid codes of belief and behavior.

  • Intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas.

  • Need for strict rules and laws to reduce uncertainty.

• Low UAI (e.g., Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark):

  • Relaxed attitude.

  • Practice counts more than principles.

  • Comfortable with ambiguity and risk-taking.

5. Long Term vs. Short Term Orientation

• Long Term (e.g., China, Japan, South Korea):

  • Focus on future rewards.

  • Values persistence, saving, and adapting to changing circumstances.

  • Relationships are viewed as long-term investments.

• Short Term (e.g., USA, Australia):

  • Focus on the past and present.

  • Values national pride, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations.

  • Expects quick results.

6. Indulgence vs. Restraint

• Indulgence (e.g., Venezuela, Mexico):

  • Allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun.

• Restraint (e.g., Pakistan, Eastern Europe):

  • Suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Model

Edward Hall analyzed culture through three specific lenses: Context, Space, and Time.

1. Context (High vs. Low)

• High Context Cultures (Asia, Latin America, Africa):

  • Communication relies heavily on implicit messages, body language, and the physical context.

  • “Read between the lines.” What is not said is often more important than what is said.

  • Trust and relationships are key before business.

• Low Context Cultures (USA, Northern Europe):

  • Communication is explicit and direct.

  • “Say what you mean.” The message is in the words themselves.

  • Contracts and written words are valued over relationships.

2. Space (Proxemics)

• Hall studied Proxemics, the use of physical space.

• Different cultures have different comfort zones. For example, Americans generally prefer more personal space (an arm’s length) during conversation compared to people from Spain or the Philippines, who stand much closer.

3. Time (Monochronic vs. Polychronic)

• Monochronic (e.g., USA, Germany):

  • Time is linear. “Time is money.”

  • Do one thing at a time.

  • Adhere strictly to schedules and punctuality.

• Polychronic (e.g., Latin America, Mediterranean):

  • Time is fluid.

  • Do multiple things at once.

  • Relationships are more important than schedules. Being late is often accepted if it means finishing a conversation with someone else.

What is Cross-Cultural Communication?

Cross-Cultural Communication is the study of understanding differences and similarities among cultural groups to effectively participate within an organization. It refers to the adaptations people from different backgrounds make to ensure communication is effective.

Key Elements of Success:

1. Awareness: Knowing that differences exist.

2. Preparation: Researching the culture before interaction.

3. Language: Understanding not just words, but how they are used.

4. Humour: Using it cautiously as jokes often don’t translate.

5. Openness: Being open to new ideas and reducing judgment.

Barriers to Cross-Cultural Communication

Communication across cultures is fraught with potential pitfalls. Hofstede classified these barriers into five heads:

1. Language Barrier

It is not just about vocabulary; it is about usage.

• Speed: Indians tend to speak English faster than others.

• Intonation: Loud voices can be interpreted as dominance or arrogance in some cultures (like Thailand), while acceptable in others.

• Accents: Differences in pronunciation can lead to misinterpretation.

• Silence: In Western cultures, silence is often awkward. In Asian cultures (Japan, China), silence is a sign of reflection and active listening.

2. Non-verbal Communication

This includes gestures, posture, and demeanor.

• Oculesics (Eye Contact): Direct eye contact is a sign of confidence in the USA but can be seen as disrespectful or aggressive in many Asian and African cultures.

• Haptics (Touch): Touching is common in Latin America but avoided in Northern Europe and Asia.

• Gestures: The “OK” sign or crossing legs can be deeply offensive in certain parts of the world.

3. Stereotypes

Stereotyping is preconceiving interpretations about people based on their nationality.

• Example: Assuming all Germans are rigid or all Italians are loud. This prevents you from seeing the individual and biases your interpretation of their actions.

4. Cultural Bias (Ethnocentrism)

This is the “Us vs. Them” mentality.

• Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture. It involves believing your way is the “right” way and the other way is “odd” or “wrong.”

5. Anxiety

The fear of communicating with people from different cultures due to uncertainty.

• Effect: High anxiety causes stress, making it difficult to concentrate on the message or read social cues, leading to withdrawal from the interaction.

Strategies to Overcome Barriers

To succeed in a global environment, one must move from observation to interpretation carefully.

1. Acquire Knowledge: Don’t assume. Research the culture. Learn basic greetings and business norms.

2. Language Adaptation: Speak clearly and slowly. Avoid slang, idioms (“hit the hay”), or complex grammar. Reconfirm if the message was understood.

3. Active Listening: In cross-cultural settings, listening is more important than speaking. Pay attention to silence and non-verbal cues. Paraphrase what you heard to ensure accuracy.

4. Flexibility: Be willing to adapt your style. If the other culture values small talk and relationship building (Polychronic), do not rush immediately into business (Monochronic).

5. Avoid Stereotyping: Treat every interaction as a fresh opportunity. Judge the person, not the nationality.

Media Richness and Communication Channels

Choosing the right channel is critical for cross-cultural messages.

• Lean Media: Channels that carry limited information and lack immediate feedback.

  • Examples: Text messages, emails, memos, reports.

  • Use: Best for routine, clear, unambiguous facts where emotional context isn’t needed.

• Rich Media: Channels that carry a high volume of information, including visuals, audio, and body language.

  • Examples: Face-to-face meetings, video calls (Zoom/Teams).

  • Use: Best for complex, ambiguous, or sensitive messages where you need to read the other person’s reaction to avoid misunderstanding.

• Social Media: A powerful tool for connecting with diverse audiences swiftly. However, the language is often informal and unfiltered, which requires careful management to avoid PR disasters.

Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

Milton Bennett described how people progress from a “closed” mindset to an “open” global mindset.

A. Ethnocentric Stages (Closed):

1. Denial: “My culture is the only real one.” (Total ignorance of differences).

2. Defense: “My culture is better than yours.” (Recognizing differences but seeing them as a threat).

3. Minimization: “Deep down, we are all the same.” (Trivializing differences to make oneself comfortable).

B. Ethnorelative Stages (Open): 4. Acceptance: Recognizing and valuing cultural differences without judgment. 5. Adaptation: The ability to shift perspective and behavior to fit the cultural context. 6. Integration: Internalizing multiple cultural frames of reference into one’s own identity. (The ability to move seamlessly between cultures).